RARE DISEASE
Marburg hemorrhagic fever
Marburg hemorrhagic fever
Marburg hemorrhagic fever
Synonyms: Green monkey disease, MHF, Marburg virus disease
Synonyms: Green monkey disease, MHF, Marburg virus disease
Synonyms: Green monkey disease, MHF, Marburg virus disease
Drug discovery
4
drugs
With orphan designations
Overview
Marburg hemorrhagic fever (MHF) is a severe viral illness caused by Orthomarburgvirus, characterized by sudden fever, hemorrhagic manifestations, multi-organ failure, and case fatality rates of 24–90% [1][14][17]. Transmission occurs via contact with infected body fluids, with fruit bats (Rousettus aegyptiacus) as the primary reservoir. Early symptoms mimic malaria or typhoid, progressing to "wet" phases (vomiting, diarrhea) and potential bleeding [6][14][18]. Diagnosis requires RT-PCR or antigen testing, with strict infection control protocols critical to prevent nosocomial spread [1][6][16].
Population
Primarily affects sub-Saharan African regions; high-risk groups include miners, healthcare workers, and those in contact with bats or infected primates [7][14][17].
Recent outbreaks (2024–2025) reported in Tanzania (9 cases; 89% fatality) and Rwanda (62 cases; 24% fatality), with healthcare workers disproportionately impacted [15][19].
Therapies
Supportive care: Fluid/electrolyte management, oxygenation, and hemorrhage control remain cornerstone interventions [6][14][16].
Experimental approaches: Galidesivir (viral RNA polymerase inhibitor), Favipiravir (RNA mutagenesis), and remdesivir-monoclonal antibody combinations show preclinical promise [3][8][12].
Categories: rare infectious diseases
Research Papers
421 drug discovery papers about Marburg hemorrhagic fever, with 5 first-in-class and 15 next-in-class emerging drug candidates forecasted to outperform the average preclinical success rate. Recent publications:
421 drug discovery papers about Marburg hemorrhagic fever, with 5 first-in-class and 15 next-in-class emerging drug candidates forecasted to outperform the average preclinical success rate. Recent publications:
categories:
Small molecules
vaccines
2026-07-11 | Epidemiology and containment of the first Marburg virus disease outbreak in Ethiopia in 2025: A retrospective descriptive study.
In November 2025, Ethiopia confirmed its first Marburg Virus Disease (MVD) outbreak in Jinka, marking a significant geographical expansion of the virus with a 64% case fatality rate. This study characterizes the transmission dynamics of the 2025 MVD outbreak in Ethiopia and evaluates the impact of the national public health containment strategy on the epidemic trajectory. We conducted a retrospective descriptive analysis using surveillance and laboratory data from November 14 to December 30, 2025. Transmission intensity was quantified using basic (R0) and effective (Rt) reproduction numbers. We further evaluated the deployment of the investigational cAd3-Marburg vaccine and the feasibility of drone-assisted ultra-cold chain logistics under the national Evidence Generation during an Emergency (EGE) framework. The outbreak involved 14 confirmed cases and 9 fatalities (CFR: 64%). The initial R0 was 2.34, driven by nosocomial and religious clusters. Following the activation of the Incident Management System, diagnostic testing increased by over 1000%, and 2500 vaccine doses were deployed to high-risk groups. The use of drone logistics was observed to support the -80 °C cold chain for deliveries in remote areas. Rt fell below 1.0 within 14 days of formal intervention. The findings are consistent with the hypothesis that the combination of rapid diagnostic scaling decentralized incident management and technological integration were temporally associated with the truncation of MVD transmission chains. The integrated approach of decentralized management and rapid technological deployment offers a framework for viral hemorrhagic fever preparedness in similar resource-limited settings.
2026-07-10 | Integrative reverse vaccinology and computational modeling for the rational design of a broadly immunogenic multi-epitope vaccine against Marburg virus infection.
Marburg virus (MARV), a member of the Filoviridae family, causes severe hemorrhagic fever in humans with case fatality rates exceeding 90%, and currently, no approved vaccines or therapeutics are available. To address this urgent need, we employed comprehensive immunoinformatics and computational approaches to design a multi-epitope subunit vaccine (MESV) capable of eliciting robust immune responses. Highly antigenic, non-allergenic, and non-toxic cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL), helper T lymphocyte (HTL), and B-cell epitopes derived from MARV glycoprotein (GP) and nucleoprotein (NP) were selected and assembled using appropriate linkers and adjuvant sequences. The designed vaccine construct exhibited favorable physicochemical characteristics, structural stability, and strong immunogenic potential. Solubility analysis predicted a score of 0.835, while structural validation revealed an ERRAT score of 94.11%, with 89.4% of residues located in the most favored regions of the Ramachandran plot. The ProSA analysis yielded a Z-score of - 5.31, confirming the reliability of the modeled structure. Molecular docking studies demonstrated strong interactions between the vaccine construct and Toll-like receptor 7, while molecular dynamics simulations confirmed the stability of the docked complex. Codon optimization and in silico cloning indicated efficient expression potential in Escherichia coli, with a codon adaptation index (CAI) of 0.9805 and GC content of 55.39%. Furthermore, immune simulations predicted a robust and sustained immune response. These computational findings suggest that the designed MESV is a promising vaccine candidate for MARV and warrants further experimental validation through in vitro and in vivo studies.
2026-03-20 | Simultaneous broad protection against Ebola Sudan, Marburg and Lassa viruses conferred by a DNA primed MVA-vectored multivalent vaccine
Abstract Sub-Saharan Africa continues to experience recurrent outbreaks of zoonotic viral diseases that spill over unpredictably from animal reservoirs into human populations. In many regions, mpox co-circulates with viral hemorrhagic fevers (VHFs) caused by Ebola Sudan virus (SUDV), Marburg virus (MARV), and Lassa fever virus (LASV). Overlapping clinical syndromes that these VHF cause challenge surveillance, diagnostics and timely deployment of effective countermeasures. A single vaccine capable of protecting against these biologically and genetically distinct pathogens would markedly reduce the cost and complexity of outbreak response, lessen dependence on emergency international aid, and strengthen long-term health system resilience. Here, we report on the development of an MVA-based mpox vaccine engineered to express computationally designed, broad-coverage antigens targeting SUDV, MARV and LASV. In preclinical challenge studies, this multivalent vaccine elicited robust immune responses and conferred significant protection against lethal infection from all three pathogens in parallel challenge experiments. These findings establish preclinical proof-of-concept for a single, broadly protective VHF vaccine and support its clinical development for deployment across diverse settings in Sub-Saharan Africa. Significance Outbreak control in Sub-Saharan Africa is challenged by the co-circulation of different high consequence human infections such as mpox and diverse viral hemorrhagic fevers (VHF) such as SUDV, MARV, and LASV pathogens. These VHFs have overlapping early clinical syndromes, complicating triage and delaying effective targeted interventions. We developed a single MVA-based vaccine encoding computationally designed, conserved antigens from all three VHFs encoded within the MVA vector analogous to the licensed mpox vaccine. In simultaneous challenge models, this multivalent vaccine elicited robust humoral and cellular responses and conferred significant protection against lethal infection by each hemorrhagic fever pathogen. This work provides preclinical proof-of-concept for a unified, broadly protective countermeasure compatible with existing MVA-mpox vaccine manufacturing and deployment experience. By reducing dependence on rapid differential diagnostics and streamlining logistics relative to maintaining multiple pathogen-specific vaccine stockpiles, this approach can lower costs, accelerate response, and increase equity of access during syndromic outbreaks. The platform’s engineered antigen breadth and human safety profile of MVA together support a pragmatic translational pathway toward clinical evaluation and regional readiness for zoonotic spillover events that are intensifying with human and environmental changes.
2026-03-02 | Immunoinformatics-based design of a multi-epitope vaccine for Marburg virus.
Marburg viruses (MARV) are negative-stranded RNA viruses belonging to filoviridae family. This virus causes severe haemorrhagic fever in humans and non-human primates, with a high fatality rate. Currently, there are no vaccines or drugs have been approved to induce productive immunity or control viral infection. As a result, vaccination against this virus is essential for reducing mortality rates. The current study aimed to identify CTL (cytotoxic T lymphocytes) and B-cell epitopes of MARV using in silico tools. A total of 3697 CTL epitopes and 4577 B-cell epitopes were predicted in the viral proteome of MARV. A reverse vaccinology approach was used to reduce the predicted CTL epitopes by adjusting MHC class I processing, immunogenicity, and other parameters. Finally, epitopes that are non-toxic, antigenic, non-allergenic, and non-homologous to the human proteome were chosen. Among these, 29 novel immunodominant MARV CTL epitopes were docked to their respective HLA alleles and the stability of the interaction was assessed using molecular dynamics simulation. All HLA-epitope complexes were found to be stable indicating that the predicted epitopes are binding with good affinity. Finally, a multi-epitope vaccine with three B-cell epitopes and ten CTL epitopes was designed. The secondary and tertiary structures of the vaccine construct were predicted, refined, and validated. The vaccine construct's codons were then optimized for maximum protein expression. In silico cloning was used to insert the gene construct into the pcDNA 3.1 (+) vector. This final construct can be used to develop an effective epitope-based MARV vaccine.
2026-02-03 | Marburg and Sudan virus outbreaks: are we any closer to a pan-filovirus vaccine?
Filoviruses, including Ebola, Marburg, and Sudan viruses, cause severe hemorrhagic fevers with high mortality rates and outbreaks. While recent vaccine developments such as the rVSV-ZEBOV vaccine for Ebola have marked important progress and is now licensed by the FDA and the EMA, they remain virus-specific and limited in scope. The urgent need for a broad, cross-protective pan-filovirus vaccine is clear, especially considering recurring outbreaks and the potential for global spread. This paper reviews the current landscape of filovirus vaccine research, highlighting promising platforms, challenges in achieving cross-species protection, and lessons learned from past public health responses. It also emphasizes the scientific and logistical hurdles, such as antigenic diversity and the sporadic nature of outbreaks, which complicate vaccine development. Recommendations include sustained investment, collaborative research, and flexible trial designs. Ultimately, a pan-filovirus vaccine would be a vital tool in global health preparedness and reaching that goal will require long-term vision and commitment from the international community.
small molecules
2026-09-29 | Marburg virus disease outbreak and response in South Ethiopia Region.
Marburg Virus Disease (MVD) is a highly virulent zoonotic infection associated with high case fatality rates and multi-organ dysfunction. Early recognition, timely supportive care, and appropriate clinical management are important in improving outcomes. We describe the clinical presentation, laboratory features, management strategies, and outcomes of five confirmed MVD survivors. We present a case series of five patients with laboratory-confirmed MVD who recovered following treatment at Jinka General Hospital/MVD Treatment Center between November and December 2025. The cohort included four females and one male (median age: 18 years). All patients presented with fever, headache, and gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms, with three exhibiting hemorrhagic manifestations. Key laboratory findings included leukopenia (White Blood Cell (WBC) nadir 1.55 × 10³/µL), thrombocytopenia (platelet nadir 65 × 10³/µL), and elevated transaminases (Aspartate Aminotransferase (AST) peak 1,153 U/L). One patient developed severe neutropenia (Absolute Neutrophil Count (ANC) 107 cells/µL). All patients received remdesivir (in varying regimens) and supportive care. Viral clearance was confirmed by two consecutive negative Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) tests within 48 h, achieved between days 6 and 12. All five patients (100%) achieved complete clinical recovery and were discharged. This case series demonstrates that recovery from confirmed MVD is achievable with early diagnosis, comprehensive supportive care, and antiviral therapy, even in the presence of severe gastrointestinal hemorrhage. Dynamic monitoring of liver enzymes and viral clearance is essential. These findings underscore the potential for favorable outcomes with early diagnosis and antiviral treatment even in resource-limited settings.
2026-09-25 | A multi-level computational analysis identifies Ocimum basilicum phytochemicals as potent inhibitors of the Marburg virus VP40 matrix protein
Marburg virus disease (MVD) is an extremely lethal hemorrhagic fever with no approved antiviral treatment available, which emphasizes the need to develop newer and safer drug candidates. In the current study, we used an in silico approach to identify candidate inhibitors of the Marburg virus matrix protein VP40, which plays a vital role in the viral assembly and budding process using bioactive compounds derived from Ocimum basilicum . A homology model of the Marburg virus VP40 protein was built and assessed by Ramachandran, QMEAN, ProSA, Verify3D and ERRAT analysis, and 156 bioactive compounds derived from Ocimum basilicum were then screened against it by molecular docking. Rutin ranked first, with a docking score of -10.4 kcal/mol and hydrogen-bonded and van der Waals contacts to residues of the predicted pocket. A 500 ns all-atom molecular dynamics simulation indicated a stable VP40-rutin complex, with a backbone RMSD of 1.98 ± 0.19 Å, a mean Cα RMSF of 1.10 ± 0.52 Å, and a compact, well-preserved fold (radius of gyration 19.77 ± 0.15 Å). End-state binding free energies calculated over 51 uniformly sampled trajectory frames were favourable under both solvation models, at -46.08 ± 5.96 kcal/mol (MM/GBSA) and -27.92 ± 7.63 kcal/mol (MM/PBSA), driven primarily by van der Waals and electrostatic contributions. ADMET profiling, however, revealed a substantial pharmacokinetic liability: rutin violates three of Lipinski’s criteria (molecular weight 610.52 g/mol, topological polar surface area 269.43 Å 2 , 10 hydrogen-bond donors and 16 acceptors) and its predicted human intestinal absorption is only 23.45%, so it is best regarded as a lead scaffold requiring structural or formulation optimisation rather than a ready-to-use agent. Validation of the docking protocol against independent molecular dynamics reference poses gave a mixed result. The predicted affinity was reproducible, and the predicted pocket was clearly preferred over decoy boxes placed elsewhere on the protein surface, but pose recovery failed. No top-ranked pose fell within the conventional 2 Å success threshold of the reference pose. Docking was therefore used only as an initial screening filter to rank compounds, and neither the binding geometry nor any mechanism of inhibition is inferred from it. All structural and energetic conclusions reported here rest on the molecular dynamics ensemble and the end-state free-energy analyses. Gas-phase DFT analysis gave a narrow HOMO-LUMO gap (4.13 eV), high softness and a moderate electrophilicity index, which offer supportive electronic evidence of charge-transfer capacity rather than independent confirmation of affinity. Taken together, these findings identify rutin as a natural lead compound against VP40, subject to the pharmacokinetic and docking limitations set out above, and provide a critically validated computational framework for anti-Marburg drug discovery.
2026-08-09 | Narrative review on Marburg virus disease aetiopathogenesis and management
Abstract On November 14th, 2025, the Ethiopian Ministry of Health confirmed the country’s first Marburg virus outbreak, representing another in a series of recent outbreaks across Africa in only 3 years. Marburg virus disease (MVD) is a highly lethal zoonotic haemorrhagic fever caused by the Marburg virus. This review synthesises the current evidence on MVD, covering epidemiology, pathogenesis, diagnostics, and emerging countermeasures, such as investigational antivirals and vaccines. Despite the severity of the disease outcome, no licensed treatment or vaccine exists. Recent outbreaks, including Rwanda (2024), Tanzania and Ethiopia (2025), have accelerated evaluation of investigational therapeutics such as remdesivir and monoclonal antibody MBP091 under expanded access and early‑phase studies; no randomised human efficacy data are currently available for MVD, alongside novel platforms including mRNA and adenovirus-vectored vaccines. Advances in molecular virology have helped to elucidate mechanisms of immune evasion and viral persistence, informing strategies for targeted interventions. Diagnostic capacity and therapeutic deployment remain constrained in resource-limited settings. Strengthening global preparedness will require integrated surveillance, rapid clinical trial frameworks, and equitable access to vaccines and antivirals.
2026-07-17 | AI-Driven Discovery and BSL-4 Validation of Cross-Filovirus Ebola-Marburg Inhibitors and their Synergistic Combinations.
Filovirus outbreaks caused by Ebola virus (EBOV) and Marburg virus (MARV), pose severe global health threats characterized by high rates of fatal hemorrhagic fever. While species-specific vaccines and therapeutic monoclonal antibodies are approved for Zaire ebolavirus, broadly-active therapeutics remain unavailable, leaving populations vulnerable to MARV and other pathogenic Ebola species, such as Bundibugyo (BDBV) and Sudan (SUDV) ebolaviruses. Here we report a computationally guided, infectious virus validated screening platform for the rapid discovery of broad-spectrum filovirus antivirals. By leveraging quantitative structure- activity relationship (QSAR) models, we screened 142,382 compounds in silico to prioritize 125 high-potential candidates. Subsequent dose-response and viability profiling identified 23 compounds exhibiting potent, low-micromolar pan-filovirus activity and favorable cytotoxicity profiles. Molecular docking indicates these compounds target conserved structural and functional domains-primarily the VP35 and L proteins-which may disrupt essential viral replication and immune antagonism. Furthermore, systematic combinatorial screening revealed three highly synergistic compound pairs, notably NCGC00113249-01 and NCGC00118008-01, demonstrating robust cross-species efficacy. By targeting conserved vulnerabilities across the filovirus family, this integrated in silico and in vitro pipeline provides a scalable framework to rapidly nominate and optimize synergistic therapeutic regimens against both endemic and emerging viral threats including BDBV.
2026-06-26 | AI-Driven Discovery of Prototype CLEC4M Inhibitors Targeting Marburg Virus Entry via Integrated Machine Learning and Molecular Modeling.
Marburg virus (MARV), a highly pathogenic member of the Filoviridae family, causes severe hemorrhagic fever with a high case fatality rate and currently lacks effective therapeutics. The viral entry process, mediated by the interaction between the MARV glycoprotein (GP) and host receptor C-type lectin domain family 4 member M (CLEC4M) (L-SIGN), represents a critical target for early-stage intervention. The active compounds from BindingDB and the decoy from DUDE were used. The RDKit was used for feature engineering. Machine learning models were trained on an initial dataset consisting of 56 active chemicals and 1232 decoys. Among the tested algorithms, the Random Forest model demonstrated superior performance, achieving the highest discriminative ability (AUC = 0.93, MCC = 0.88) on the test set. Virtual screening of 11,032 phytochemicals resulted in 120 predicted actives, of which 42 compounds satisfied drug-likeness criteria. Subsequent molecular docking identified three lead compounds (PubChem IDs: 42608095, 5281601, and 11243993) with moderate-to-promising binding affinities (-6.3 to -6.5 kcal/mol) toward the CLEC4M binding site. ADMET analysis revealed favorable pharmacokinetic and toxicity profiles for the selected lead compounds. DFT calculations of the three compounds highlighted their electronic stability and reactive nature, indicating that PubChem IDs 42608095 and 5281601 possess particularly stable electronic properties conducive to favorable target interactions. Combining machine learning models with molecular docking and Molecular Dynamics (MD) simulations worked well in finding promising phytochemical inhibitors. The MM/GBSA binding free energy calculations further confirmed binding affinities, with values of -10.83 and -11.08 kcal/mol, respectively, suggesting favorable complex stability. These findings provide a pathway for developing new antiviral agents against MARV, pending further experimental validation and optimization.
oligonucleotides
2025-10-10 | Marburg Virus Disease: Virology, Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Preventive Strategies
Marburg virus disease (MVD) is a severe and often fatal hemorrhagic fever caused by the Marburg virus, a member of the Filoviridae family. First identified in 1967 during simultaneous outbreaks in Germany and Serbia, the virus is a zoonotic pathogen whose natural reservoir is the African fruit bat, Rousettus aegyptiacus. Human infection typically occurs through contact with bat excreta in mines or caves, or via secondary transmission from infected individuals through direct contact with bodily fluids. The clinical course of MVD is characterized by an abrupt onset of non-specific symptoms including high fever, severe headache, and myalgia after a 5-10 day incubation period. This progresses to gastrointestinal symptoms and, in severe cases, hemorrhagic manifestations, jaundice, and multi-organ failure, with a high case fatality rate ranging from 23% to 90%. Diagnosis is challenging due to symptom overlap with other tropical diseases but is confirmed through RT-PCR, antigen-capture ELISA, or virus isolation in high-containment (BSL-4) laboratories. There are currently no approved vaccines or specific antiviral treatments for MVD. Management is primarily supportive, focusing on fluid balance, electrolyte correction, and treating complications. Prevention relies on public health measures, including avoiding contact with bats, implementing strict barrier nursing techniques in healthcare settings, and safe burial practices during outbreaks. Ongoing research into post-exposure prophylactics, such as experimental vaccines and antisense therapies, shows promise for future outbreak control.
2025-07-03 | Marburg virus glycoprotein mRNA vaccine is more protective than a virus-like particle-forming mRNA vaccine.
Although virus-like particle (VLP) vaccines were shown to be effective against several viruses, their advantage over vaccines that include envelope protein only is not completely clear, particularly for mRNA-encoded VLPs. We conducted a side-by-side comparison of the immunogenicity and protective efficacy of mRNA vaccines encoding the Marburg virus (MARV) full-length glycoprotein (GP) delivered alone or as a VLP. Electron microscopy confirmed VLP formation when MARV GP and matrix protein VP40 were coexpressed. We vaccinated guinea pigs with a 2-component mRNA vaccine encoding GP and VP40 (VLP) or GP alone. At the highest dose, both vaccines protected fully, although the VLP vaccine elicited a slightly lower humoral response than did the GP-only mRNA vaccine. However, at low doses, GP-only mRNA conferred 100% protection, whereas the VLP vaccine conferred only partial protection. In mice, VLP mRNA induced a moderate preference for GP-specific CD8+ T cell responses, whereas the GP-only mRNA somewhat favored CD4+ T cell responses. Guinea pig whole-blood RNA-Seq revealed that the VLP vaccine downregulated genes associated with various biological and metabolic processes, including the NF-κB signaling pathway, whereas the GP-only vaccine upregulated IFN signaling. Overall, the VLP mRNA vaccine was less immunogenic and protective, whereas the GP-only mRNA vaccine conferred robust protection with a dose of as little as 1 μg in guinea pigs.
2025-03-03 | From protein to immunology: comprehensive insights into Marburg virus vaccines, mechanism, and application.
The Marburg virus (MARV), a member of the Filoviridae family, is a highly lethal pathogen that causes Marburg virus disease (MVD), a severe hemorrhagic fever with high fatality rates.Despite recurrent outbreaks, no licensed vaccine is currently available. This review explores MARV's genomic architecture, structural proteins, and recent advancements in vaccine development. It highlights the crucial role of MARV's seven monocistronic genes in viral replication and pathogenesis, with a focus on structural proteins such as nucleoprotein (NP), glycoprotein (GP), and viral proteins VP35, VP40, and VP24. These proteins are essential for viral entry, immune evasion, and replication. The review further examines various vaccine platforms, including multi-epitope vaccines, DNA-based vaccines, viral vector vaccines, virus-like particles (VLPs), and mRNA vaccines. Cutting-edge immunoinformatics approaches are discussed for identifying conserved epitopes critical for broad-spectrum protection. The immunological responses induced by these vaccine candidates, particularly their efficacy in preclinical trials, are analyzed, showcasing promising results in generating both humoral and cellular immunity. Moreover, the review addresses challenges and future directions in MARV vaccine development, emphasizing the need for enhanced immunogenicity, safety, and global accessibility. The integration of omics technologies (genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics) with immunoinformatics is presented as a transformative approach for next-generation vaccine design. Innovative platforms such as mRNA and VLP-based vaccines offer rapid and effective development opportunities. In this study, underscores the urgent need for a licensed MARV vaccine to prevent future outbreaks and strengthen global preparedness. By synthesizing the latest research and technological advancements, it provides a strategic roadmap for developing safe, effective, and broadly protective vaccines. The fight against MARV is a global priority, requiring coordinated efforts from researchers, policymakers, and public health organizations.
2024-04-08 | Divergent antibody recognition profiles are generated by protective mRNA vaccines against Marburg and Ravn viruses.
The first-ever recent Marburg virus (MARV) outbreak in Ghana, West Africa and Equatorial Guinea has refocused efforts towards the development of therapeutics since no vaccine or treatment has been approved. mRNA vaccines were proven successful in a pandemic-response to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2, making it an appealing vaccine platform to target highly pathogenic emerging viruses. Here, 1-methyl-pseudouridine-modified mRNA vaccines formulated in lipid nanoparticles (LNP) were developed against MARV and the closely-related Ravn virus (RAVV), which were based on sequences of the glycoproteins (GP) of the two viruses. Vaccination of guinea pigs with both vaccines elicited robust binding and neutralizing antibodies and conferred complete protection against virus replication, disease and death. The study characterized antibody responses to identify disparities in the binding and functional profiles between the two viruses and regions in GP that are broadly reactive. For the first time, the glycan cap is highlighted as an immunoreactive site for marburgviruses, inducing both binding and neutralizing antibody responses that are dependent on the virus. Profiling the antibody responses against the two viruses provided an insight into how antigenic differences may affect the response towards conserved GP regions which would otherwise be predicted to be cross-reactive and has implications for the future design of broadly protective vaccines. The results support the use of mRNA-LNPs against pathogens of high consequence.
2023-01-09 | Combination treatment of mannose and GalNAc conjugated small interfering RNA protects against lethal Marburg virus infection.
Marburg virus (MARV) infection results in severe viral hemorrhagic fever with mortalities up to 90%, and there is a pressing need for effective therapies. Here, we established a small interfering RNA (siRNA) conjugate platform that enabled successful subcutaneous delivery of siRNAs targeting the MARV nucleoprotein. We identified a hexavalent mannose ligand with high affinity to macrophages and dendritic cells, which are key cellular targets of MARV infection. This ligand enabled successful siRNA conjugate delivery to macrophages both in vitro and in vivo. The delivered hexa-mannose-siRNA conjugates rendered substantial target gene silencing in macrophages when supported by a mannose functionalized endosome release polymer. This hexa-mannose-siRNA conjugate was further evaluated alongside our hepatocyte-targeting GalNAc-siRNA conjugate, to expand targeting of infected liver cells. In MARV-Angola-infected guinea pigs, these platforms offered limited survival benefit when used as individual agents. However, in combination, they achieved up to 100% protection when dosed 24 h post infection. This novel approach, using two different ligands to simultaneously deliver siRNA to multiple cell types relevant to infection, provides a convenient subcutaneous route of administration for treating infection by these dangerous pathogens. The mannose conjugate platform has potential application to other diseases involving macrophages and dendritic cells.
antibodies
2026-08-24 | Advances in therapeutics and vaccines for Marburg virus disease: challenges and future directions.
Marburg virus disease (MVD) is a highly lethal filovirus infection with case fatality rates of up to 88%. Although no virus-specific interventions have yet been approved, recent laboratory breakthroughs have markedly accelerated translational progress in vaccine and therapeutic development. A hybrid methodological design was employed, combining macro-level bibliometric analysis with a targeted qualitative narrative review. As per the findings, the human monoclonal antibody MR191N provides complete post-exposure protection in non-human primates. Advanced RNA-targeted siRNAs, antisense oligonucleotides, and small-molecule nucleoside analogues (e.g. galidesivir) demonstrate robust preclinical efficacy in suppressing viral replication. Prophylactic platforms - including adenovirus-vectored (ChAd3-MARV), rVSV-MARV, and mRNA-based vaccines - are progressing through early-phase clinical and preclinical evaluation. Bibliometric analysis, however, reveals pronounced geographic disparities: high-income nations dominate scientific output (United States: 31.7%), while endemic African countries remain severely underrepresented in global collaboration networks. Addressing MVD requires a coordinated transition from experimental research to licensed, field-ready interventions. This necessitates adaptive trial designs, expanded diagnostic models, and synergistic combination therapies. Ultimately, correcting global research inequities and embedding robust, cross-border One Health surveillance infrastructure are essential to transforming scientific advances into equitable, rapid-response solutions for endemic regions.
2026-06-15 | Marburg virus disease: a comprehensive review.
SUMMARYMarburg virus disease (MVD) is a highly fatal illness closely resembling Ebola disease, caused by either Marburg virus (MARV) or Ravn virus (RAVV). It typically begins with a sudden onset of high fever, headache, and malaise, followed by severe gastrointestinal symptoms, bleeding disorders, and, in the most severe cases, multi-organ failure. Case fatality rates vary widely, from 24% up to 90%. MARV and RAVV are zoonotic pathogens, with fruit bats recognized as the main reservoir. Human-to-human transmission generally occurs through direct exposure to infected bodily fluids. Historically, MVD outbreaks were primarily restricted to Central and Eastern Africa. In recent years, however, the disease has appeared in new regions: Ghana recorded its first cases in 2022, followed by concurrent outbreaks in Equatorial Guinea and Tanzania in 2023. Rwanda and Ethiopia experienced their debut outbreaks in 2024 and 2025, respectively, and another outbreak occurred in early 2025 in Tanzania. These incidents point to a troubling rise in annual MVD outbreaks and emphasize the ongoing risk of spillover from wildlife reservoirs and continued human-to-human transmission. Currently, there are no approved vaccines or antiviral treatments for MVD. Patient care focuses on supportive therapies, including aggressive fluid resuscitation, management of blood pressure and circulation, and intensive critical care. Nonetheless, promising countermeasures, such as monoclonal antibodies and antiviral drugs, are advancing through research and clinical trials. Experimental vaccines, particularly those based on viral-vector technologies, have demonstrated robust immune responses and are undergoing human testing. This review provides clinicians with the most recent knowledge of MVD, with a focus on epidemiological patterns, diagnostic procedures, clinical management, and the latest progress in developing medical countermeasures.
2026-06-12 | Structural and genetic basis for broad antibody recognition of a protective epitope on orthomarburgvirus GP2.
Orthomarburgviruses are the etiological agents of human Marburg virus disease, with case fatality rates reaching up to 90%. Of the limited known targets for protective antibodies on the orthomarburgvirus surface glycoprotein (GP), the GP2 wing region is undefined structurally, and its recognition by antibodies is poorly understood. We report a comprehensive genetic and structural analysis of four independent broadly reactive antibody lineages that target a common epitope within the GP2 wing, including macaque antibodies CM10, CM11.1, and CM12.1 and murine antibody 30G4. Co-crystal structures reveal the recognition of conserved structural determinants within the wing by all four antibodies. Immunogenetic analyses uncover common antibody sequence signatures that underlie interactions with the wing, leading in some cases to nearly identical modes of antibody binding. Our study advances the structural understanding of the GP2 wing protective region and defines conserved immunogenetic and structural features for broad antibody recognition, informing the development of vaccines and antibody countermeasures.
2026-03-25 | Lessons from Marburg virus disease outbreaks: epidemiology, pathogenesis and emerging countermeasures
Amit Bansal1,*, Camilla Tvedt Ekanger1, Elin Hoffmann Dahl1, Bjørn Blomberg1,2,*,1Department of Clinical Science, Faculty of Medicine, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway;2National Centre for Tropical Infectious Diseases, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway;*Corresponding authors:Dr. Amit Bansal (e-mail: amit.bansal@uib.no, ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0681-932X),Prof. Bjørn Blomberg (e-mail: Bjorn.Blomberg@uib.no, ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5647-4297 ),Department of Clinical Science,Faculty of Medicine,University of Bergen,Bergen, Norway
2026-03-01 | Mpox and Marburg outbreaks contained, but risks remain
Ethiopia’s first confirmed Marburg virus disease (MVD) outbreak, which began on Nov 14, 2025, was declared by WHO to be over on Jan 26, 2026. The outbreak saw 14 confirmed cases, nine deaths, and five recoveries, with 857 contacts traced. In addition to MDV declines, mpox cases have declined sharply across Africa, with weekly cases down about 90%, causing the Africa Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) to announce that mpox was no longer a public health emergency of continental concern on Jan 22, 2026.
other
2026-07-11 | Coagulopathy in viral haemorrhagic fevers and beyond: molecular mechanisms and targeted interventions.
Coagulopathy refers to any medical condition which affects the ability of the blood to clot. It can be caused due to genetic conditions like haemophilia, von Willebrand disease, or it can be caused through liver disease or deficiency of Vitamin K. It also involves a broad range of diseases affecting hemostasis as an unbalanced and even bidirectional relationship between thrombosis and bleeding. Coagulopathy can also be caused by thromboinflammation, as seen in VHFs like Ebola, Dengue, Marburg, Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever, Yellow Fever, and Hantavirus infection. The immune response and coagulation system are intricately linked in such cases. Infections from VHFs cause endothelial cell dysfunction through the immune response, monocytes/macrophages activation, and increased expression of tissue factor (TF), which in turn causes excessive thrombin production and fibrin formation. These conditions result in microvascular thrombosis, organ dysfunction, consumption of platelets and coagulation factors, causing a balanced but fragile state of hemostasis that could tip over towards either thrombosis or bleeding. New therapies have been developed that interfere with these processes, such as interference with the TF pathway (for instance, rNAPc2) and regulation of fibrinolysis (tranexamic acid). The recognition of the double-edged sword of coagulopathy is critical for the development of treatment strategies targeting coagulation disorders. This literature review discusses the molecular basis of immunothrombosis and endothelial dysfunction in VHFs.
2025-12-17 | The role of Marburg virus glycoprotein diversity on epitopes conservation and its impact on effectiveness of vaccines and therapeutic antibodies: A call for one health strategy in vaccines research, development, and coordinated implementation
The Marburg virus (MARV) is a highly lethal zoonotic filovirus that is responsible for sporadic outbreaks of severe viral hemorrhagic fever with high case mortality rate. Despite global investment in the development of vaccine and antibody-based countermeasures targeting the viral glycoprotein (GP), limited data is available on how such immune pressures shape GP genetic diversity and how this diversity is affecting the effectiveness of on-progress vaccines. In this study, we performed an Insilco-analysis of MARV-GP published sequences to investigate patterns of genetic variation under antibody selection and potentially vaccination pressure. Utilizing publicly available full-length GP sequences, we assessed domain-specific diversity, focusing on the mucin-like domain (MLD), receptor-binding region (RBR), and fusion peptide region (FPR). The immunological impacts of amino acid polymorphisms, including potential escape from neutralizing antibodies including MR78 and MR191 were investigated. Results showed that the MLD had disproportionately high diversity, likely due to relaxed structural constraints, potentially reducing GP-based vaccine efficacy. The RBR and FPR were more conserved, but several non-conservative mutations affected antibody binding affinity. Notably, mutations clustered near known epitopes, suggesting antibody-driven selection. This study underscores the importance of continued molecular and immunogenic surveillance that account for MARV-GP diversity, especially in regions prone to immunologic targeting. These results improve current understanding of viral adaptation under immune pressure and inform MARV vaccines and therapeutic antibodies design strategies. Stakeholders of zoonotic diseases, should invest on integrating One Health strategy in the research and development of safe effective vaccines across all hosts of the pathogens to accelerate diseases elimination.
2025-05-22 | Bat organoids reveal antiviral responses at epithelial surfaces.
Bats can host viruses of pandemic concern without developing disease. The mechanisms underlying their exceptional resilience to viral infections are largely unresolved, necessitating the development of physiologically relevant and genetically tractable research models. Here, we developed respiratory and intestinal organoids that recapitulated the cellular diversity of the in vivo epithelium present in Rousettus aegyptiacus, the natural reservoir for the highly pathogenic Marburg virus (MARV). In contrast to human counterparts, bat organoids and mucosal tissue exhibited elevated constitutive expression of innate immune effectors, including type I interferon-ε (IFNε) and IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs). Upon infection with diverse zoonotic viruses, including MARV, bat organoids strongly induced type I and III IFN responses, which conferred robust antiviral protection. Type III IFNλ3 additionally displayed virus-independent self-amplification, acting as an ISG to enhance antiviral immunity. Our organoid platform reveals key features of bat epithelial antiviral immunity that may inform therapeutic strategies for viral disease resilience.
2024-01-12 | Mathematical modelling of transmission dynamics of Marburg virus with effective quarantine approach
Marburg virus disease (MVD) is a severe infection with an extremely high fatality rate, spread through direct and indirect contact. Recently, there was an outbreak of the deadly MVD disease. We studied the transmission dynamics of MVD through the SEQIR model and determined the basic reproduction number, the local stability, and the global stability of the disease-free equilibrium. This study aims to mathematically model the transmission dynamics of MVD using an effective Quarantine Approach. Building upon existing research, the model introduces a quarantine compartment and analyses the disease-free equilibrium.The results indicate that quarantining exposed individuals effectively curb the transmission of MVD and prevents secondary infections. Additionally, the introduction of treatment in the model ensures the survival of patients. However, it is emphasized that further research is essential to develop specific treatments for MVD, as preventive measures alone may not be sufficient to control the disease's spread.
2023-08-28 | AAV-Vectored Expression of Marburg Virus–Neutralizing Antibody MR191 Provides Complete Protection From Challenge in a Guinea Pig Model
Abstract Although there are no approved countermeasures available to prevent or treat disease caused by Marburg virus (MARV), potently neutralizing monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) derived from B cells of human survivors have been identified. One such mAb, MR191, has been shown to provide complete protection against MARV in nonhuman primates. We previously demonstrated that prophylactic administration of an adeno-associated virus (AAV) expressing MR191 protected mice from MARV. Here, we modified the AAV-MR191 coding sequence to enhance efficacy and reevaluated protection in a guinea pig model. Remarkably, 4 different variants of AAV-MR191 provided complete protection against MARV, despite administration 90 days prior to challenge. Based on superior expression kinetics, AAV-MR191-io2, was selected for evaluation in a dose-reduction experiment. The highest dose provided 100% protection, while a lower dose provided ∼88% protection. These data confirm the efficacy of AAV-mediated expression of MR191 and support the further development of this promising MARV countermeasure.
vaccines
2026-07-11 | Epidemiology and containment of the first Marburg virus disease outbreak in Ethiopia in 2025: A retrospective descriptive study.
In November 2025, Ethiopia confirmed its first Marburg Virus Disease (MVD) outbreak in Jinka, marking a significant geographical expansion of the virus with a 64% case fatality rate. This study characterizes the transmission dynamics of the 2025 MVD outbreak in Ethiopia and evaluates the impact of the national public health containment strategy on the epidemic trajectory. We conducted a retrospective descriptive analysis using surveillance and laboratory data from November 14 to December 30, 2025. Transmission intensity was quantified using basic (R0) and effective (Rt) reproduction numbers. We further evaluated the deployment of the investigational cAd3-Marburg vaccine and the feasibility of drone-assisted ultra-cold chain logistics under the national Evidence Generation during an Emergency (EGE) framework. The outbreak involved 14 confirmed cases and 9 fatalities (CFR: 64%). The initial R0 was 2.34, driven by nosocomial and religious clusters. Following the activation of the Incident Management System, diagnostic testing increased by over 1000%, and 2500 vaccine doses were deployed to high-risk groups. The use of drone logistics was observed to support the -80 °C cold chain for deliveries in remote areas. Rt fell below 1.0 within 14 days of formal intervention. The findings are consistent with the hypothesis that the combination of rapid diagnostic scaling decentralized incident management and technological integration were temporally associated with the truncation of MVD transmission chains. The integrated approach of decentralized management and rapid technological deployment offers a framework for viral hemorrhagic fever preparedness in similar resource-limited settings.
2026-07-10 | Integrative reverse vaccinology and computational modeling for the rational design of a broadly immunogenic multi-epitope vaccine against Marburg virus infection.
Marburg virus (MARV), a member of the Filoviridae family, causes severe hemorrhagic fever in humans with case fatality rates exceeding 90%, and currently, no approved vaccines or therapeutics are available. To address this urgent need, we employed comprehensive immunoinformatics and computational approaches to design a multi-epitope subunit vaccine (MESV) capable of eliciting robust immune responses. Highly antigenic, non-allergenic, and non-toxic cytotoxic T lymphocyte (CTL), helper T lymphocyte (HTL), and B-cell epitopes derived from MARV glycoprotein (GP) and nucleoprotein (NP) were selected and assembled using appropriate linkers and adjuvant sequences. The designed vaccine construct exhibited favorable physicochemical characteristics, structural stability, and strong immunogenic potential. Solubility analysis predicted a score of 0.835, while structural validation revealed an ERRAT score of 94.11%, with 89.4% of residues located in the most favored regions of the Ramachandran plot. The ProSA analysis yielded a Z-score of - 5.31, confirming the reliability of the modeled structure. Molecular docking studies demonstrated strong interactions between the vaccine construct and Toll-like receptor 7, while molecular dynamics simulations confirmed the stability of the docked complex. Codon optimization and in silico cloning indicated efficient expression potential in Escherichia coli, with a codon adaptation index (CAI) of 0.9805 and GC content of 55.39%. Furthermore, immune simulations predicted a robust and sustained immune response. These computational findings suggest that the designed MESV is a promising vaccine candidate for MARV and warrants further experimental validation through in vitro and in vivo studies.
2026-03-20 | Simultaneous broad protection against Ebola Sudan, Marburg and Lassa viruses conferred by a DNA primed MVA-vectored multivalent vaccine
Abstract Sub-Saharan Africa continues to experience recurrent outbreaks of zoonotic viral diseases that spill over unpredictably from animal reservoirs into human populations. In many regions, mpox co-circulates with viral hemorrhagic fevers (VHFs) caused by Ebola Sudan virus (SUDV), Marburg virus (MARV), and Lassa fever virus (LASV). Overlapping clinical syndromes that these VHF cause challenge surveillance, diagnostics and timely deployment of effective countermeasures. A single vaccine capable of protecting against these biologically and genetically distinct pathogens would markedly reduce the cost and complexity of outbreak response, lessen dependence on emergency international aid, and strengthen long-term health system resilience. Here, we report on the development of an MVA-based mpox vaccine engineered to express computationally designed, broad-coverage antigens targeting SUDV, MARV and LASV. In preclinical challenge studies, this multivalent vaccine elicited robust immune responses and conferred significant protection against lethal infection from all three pathogens in parallel challenge experiments. These findings establish preclinical proof-of-concept for a single, broadly protective VHF vaccine and support its clinical development for deployment across diverse settings in Sub-Saharan Africa. Significance Outbreak control in Sub-Saharan Africa is challenged by the co-circulation of different high consequence human infections such as mpox and diverse viral hemorrhagic fevers (VHF) such as SUDV, MARV, and LASV pathogens. These VHFs have overlapping early clinical syndromes, complicating triage and delaying effective targeted interventions. We developed a single MVA-based vaccine encoding computationally designed, conserved antigens from all three VHFs encoded within the MVA vector analogous to the licensed mpox vaccine. In simultaneous challenge models, this multivalent vaccine elicited robust humoral and cellular responses and conferred significant protection against lethal infection by each hemorrhagic fever pathogen. This work provides preclinical proof-of-concept for a unified, broadly protective countermeasure compatible with existing MVA-mpox vaccine manufacturing and deployment experience. By reducing dependence on rapid differential diagnostics and streamlining logistics relative to maintaining multiple pathogen-specific vaccine stockpiles, this approach can lower costs, accelerate response, and increase equity of access during syndromic outbreaks. The platform’s engineered antigen breadth and human safety profile of MVA together support a pragmatic translational pathway toward clinical evaluation and regional readiness for zoonotic spillover events that are intensifying with human and environmental changes.
2026-03-02 | Immunoinformatics-based design of a multi-epitope vaccine for Marburg virus.
Marburg viruses (MARV) are negative-stranded RNA viruses belonging to filoviridae family. This virus causes severe haemorrhagic fever in humans and non-human primates, with a high fatality rate. Currently, there are no vaccines or drugs have been approved to induce productive immunity or control viral infection. As a result, vaccination against this virus is essential for reducing mortality rates. The current study aimed to identify CTL (cytotoxic T lymphocytes) and B-cell epitopes of MARV using in silico tools. A total of 3697 CTL epitopes and 4577 B-cell epitopes were predicted in the viral proteome of MARV. A reverse vaccinology approach was used to reduce the predicted CTL epitopes by adjusting MHC class I processing, immunogenicity, and other parameters. Finally, epitopes that are non-toxic, antigenic, non-allergenic, and non-homologous to the human proteome were chosen. Among these, 29 novel immunodominant MARV CTL epitopes were docked to their respective HLA alleles and the stability of the interaction was assessed using molecular dynamics simulation. All HLA-epitope complexes were found to be stable indicating that the predicted epitopes are binding with good affinity. Finally, a multi-epitope vaccine with three B-cell epitopes and ten CTL epitopes was designed. The secondary and tertiary structures of the vaccine construct were predicted, refined, and validated. The vaccine construct's codons were then optimized for maximum protein expression. In silico cloning was used to insert the gene construct into the pcDNA 3.1 (+) vector. This final construct can be used to develop an effective epitope-based MARV vaccine.
2026-02-03 | Marburg and Sudan virus outbreaks: are we any closer to a pan-filovirus vaccine?
Filoviruses, including Ebola, Marburg, and Sudan viruses, cause severe hemorrhagic fevers with high mortality rates and outbreaks. While recent vaccine developments such as the rVSV-ZEBOV vaccine for Ebola have marked important progress and is now licensed by the FDA and the EMA, they remain virus-specific and limited in scope. The urgent need for a broad, cross-protective pan-filovirus vaccine is clear, especially considering recurring outbreaks and the potential for global spread. This paper reviews the current landscape of filovirus vaccine research, highlighting promising platforms, challenges in achieving cross-species protection, and lessons learned from past public health responses. It also emphasizes the scientific and logistical hurdles, such as antigenic diversity and the sporadic nature of outbreaks, which complicate vaccine development. Recommendations include sustained investment, collaborative research, and flexible trial designs. Ultimately, a pan-filovirus vaccine would be a vital tool in global health preparedness and reaching that goal will require long-term vision and commitment from the international community.
small molecules
2026-09-29 | Marburg virus disease outbreak and response in South Ethiopia Region.
Marburg Virus Disease (MVD) is a highly virulent zoonotic infection associated with high case fatality rates and multi-organ dysfunction. Early recognition, timely supportive care, and appropriate clinical management are important in improving outcomes. We describe the clinical presentation, laboratory features, management strategies, and outcomes of five confirmed MVD survivors. We present a case series of five patients with laboratory-confirmed MVD who recovered following treatment at Jinka General Hospital/MVD Treatment Center between November and December 2025. The cohort included four females and one male (median age: 18 years). All patients presented with fever, headache, and gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms, with three exhibiting hemorrhagic manifestations. Key laboratory findings included leukopenia (White Blood Cell (WBC) nadir 1.55 × 10³/µL), thrombocytopenia (platelet nadir 65 × 10³/µL), and elevated transaminases (Aspartate Aminotransferase (AST) peak 1,153 U/L). One patient developed severe neutropenia (Absolute Neutrophil Count (ANC) 107 cells/µL). All patients received remdesivir (in varying regimens) and supportive care. Viral clearance was confirmed by two consecutive negative Reverse Transcription Polymerase Chain Reaction (RT-PCR) tests within 48 h, achieved between days 6 and 12. All five patients (100%) achieved complete clinical recovery and were discharged. This case series demonstrates that recovery from confirmed MVD is achievable with early diagnosis, comprehensive supportive care, and antiviral therapy, even in the presence of severe gastrointestinal hemorrhage. Dynamic monitoring of liver enzymes and viral clearance is essential. These findings underscore the potential for favorable outcomes with early diagnosis and antiviral treatment even in resource-limited settings.
2026-09-25 | A multi-level computational analysis identifies Ocimum basilicum phytochemicals as potent inhibitors of the Marburg virus VP40 matrix protein
Marburg virus disease (MVD) is an extremely lethal hemorrhagic fever with no approved antiviral treatment available, which emphasizes the need to develop newer and safer drug candidates. In the current study, we used an in silico approach to identify candidate inhibitors of the Marburg virus matrix protein VP40, which plays a vital role in the viral assembly and budding process using bioactive compounds derived from Ocimum basilicum . A homology model of the Marburg virus VP40 protein was built and assessed by Ramachandran, QMEAN, ProSA, Verify3D and ERRAT analysis, and 156 bioactive compounds derived from Ocimum basilicum were then screened against it by molecular docking. Rutin ranked first, with a docking score of -10.4 kcal/mol and hydrogen-bonded and van der Waals contacts to residues of the predicted pocket. A 500 ns all-atom molecular dynamics simulation indicated a stable VP40-rutin complex, with a backbone RMSD of 1.98 ± 0.19 Å, a mean Cα RMSF of 1.10 ± 0.52 Å, and a compact, well-preserved fold (radius of gyration 19.77 ± 0.15 Å). End-state binding free energies calculated over 51 uniformly sampled trajectory frames were favourable under both solvation models, at -46.08 ± 5.96 kcal/mol (MM/GBSA) and -27.92 ± 7.63 kcal/mol (MM/PBSA), driven primarily by van der Waals and electrostatic contributions. ADMET profiling, however, revealed a substantial pharmacokinetic liability: rutin violates three of Lipinski’s criteria (molecular weight 610.52 g/mol, topological polar surface area 269.43 Å 2 , 10 hydrogen-bond donors and 16 acceptors) and its predicted human intestinal absorption is only 23.45%, so it is best regarded as a lead scaffold requiring structural or formulation optimisation rather than a ready-to-use agent. Validation of the docking protocol against independent molecular dynamics reference poses gave a mixed result. The predicted affinity was reproducible, and the predicted pocket was clearly preferred over decoy boxes placed elsewhere on the protein surface, but pose recovery failed. No top-ranked pose fell within the conventional 2 Å success threshold of the reference pose. Docking was therefore used only as an initial screening filter to rank compounds, and neither the binding geometry nor any mechanism of inhibition is inferred from it. All structural and energetic conclusions reported here rest on the molecular dynamics ensemble and the end-state free-energy analyses. Gas-phase DFT analysis gave a narrow HOMO-LUMO gap (4.13 eV), high softness and a moderate electrophilicity index, which offer supportive electronic evidence of charge-transfer capacity rather than independent confirmation of affinity. Taken together, these findings identify rutin as a natural lead compound against VP40, subject to the pharmacokinetic and docking limitations set out above, and provide a critically validated computational framework for anti-Marburg drug discovery.
2026-08-09 | Narrative review on Marburg virus disease aetiopathogenesis and management
Abstract On November 14th, 2025, the Ethiopian Ministry of Health confirmed the country’s first Marburg virus outbreak, representing another in a series of recent outbreaks across Africa in only 3 years. Marburg virus disease (MVD) is a highly lethal zoonotic haemorrhagic fever caused by the Marburg virus. This review synthesises the current evidence on MVD, covering epidemiology, pathogenesis, diagnostics, and emerging countermeasures, such as investigational antivirals and vaccines. Despite the severity of the disease outcome, no licensed treatment or vaccine exists. Recent outbreaks, including Rwanda (2024), Tanzania and Ethiopia (2025), have accelerated evaluation of investigational therapeutics such as remdesivir and monoclonal antibody MBP091 under expanded access and early‑phase studies; no randomised human efficacy data are currently available for MVD, alongside novel platforms including mRNA and adenovirus-vectored vaccines. Advances in molecular virology have helped to elucidate mechanisms of immune evasion and viral persistence, informing strategies for targeted interventions. Diagnostic capacity and therapeutic deployment remain constrained in resource-limited settings. Strengthening global preparedness will require integrated surveillance, rapid clinical trial frameworks, and equitable access to vaccines and antivirals.
2026-07-17 | AI-Driven Discovery and BSL-4 Validation of Cross-Filovirus Ebola-Marburg Inhibitors and their Synergistic Combinations.
Filovirus outbreaks caused by Ebola virus (EBOV) and Marburg virus (MARV), pose severe global health threats characterized by high rates of fatal hemorrhagic fever. While species-specific vaccines and therapeutic monoclonal antibodies are approved for Zaire ebolavirus, broadly-active therapeutics remain unavailable, leaving populations vulnerable to MARV and other pathogenic Ebola species, such as Bundibugyo (BDBV) and Sudan (SUDV) ebolaviruses. Here we report a computationally guided, infectious virus validated screening platform for the rapid discovery of broad-spectrum filovirus antivirals. By leveraging quantitative structure- activity relationship (QSAR) models, we screened 142,382 compounds in silico to prioritize 125 high-potential candidates. Subsequent dose-response and viability profiling identified 23 compounds exhibiting potent, low-micromolar pan-filovirus activity and favorable cytotoxicity profiles. Molecular docking indicates these compounds target conserved structural and functional domains-primarily the VP35 and L proteins-which may disrupt essential viral replication and immune antagonism. Furthermore, systematic combinatorial screening revealed three highly synergistic compound pairs, notably NCGC00113249-01 and NCGC00118008-01, demonstrating robust cross-species efficacy. By targeting conserved vulnerabilities across the filovirus family, this integrated in silico and in vitro pipeline provides a scalable framework to rapidly nominate and optimize synergistic therapeutic regimens against both endemic and emerging viral threats including BDBV.
2026-06-26 | AI-Driven Discovery of Prototype CLEC4M Inhibitors Targeting Marburg Virus Entry via Integrated Machine Learning and Molecular Modeling.
Marburg virus (MARV), a highly pathogenic member of the Filoviridae family, causes severe hemorrhagic fever with a high case fatality rate and currently lacks effective therapeutics. The viral entry process, mediated by the interaction between the MARV glycoprotein (GP) and host receptor C-type lectin domain family 4 member M (CLEC4M) (L-SIGN), represents a critical target for early-stage intervention. The active compounds from BindingDB and the decoy from DUDE were used. The RDKit was used for feature engineering. Machine learning models were trained on an initial dataset consisting of 56 active chemicals and 1232 decoys. Among the tested algorithms, the Random Forest model demonstrated superior performance, achieving the highest discriminative ability (AUC = 0.93, MCC = 0.88) on the test set. Virtual screening of 11,032 phytochemicals resulted in 120 predicted actives, of which 42 compounds satisfied drug-likeness criteria. Subsequent molecular docking identified three lead compounds (PubChem IDs: 42608095, 5281601, and 11243993) with moderate-to-promising binding affinities (-6.3 to -6.5 kcal/mol) toward the CLEC4M binding site. ADMET analysis revealed favorable pharmacokinetic and toxicity profiles for the selected lead compounds. DFT calculations of the three compounds highlighted their electronic stability and reactive nature, indicating that PubChem IDs 42608095 and 5281601 possess particularly stable electronic properties conducive to favorable target interactions. Combining machine learning models with molecular docking and Molecular Dynamics (MD) simulations worked well in finding promising phytochemical inhibitors. The MM/GBSA binding free energy calculations further confirmed binding affinities, with values of -10.83 and -11.08 kcal/mol, respectively, suggesting favorable complex stability. These findings provide a pathway for developing new antiviral agents against MARV, pending further experimental validation and optimization.
oligonucleotides
2025-10-10 | Marburg Virus Disease: Virology, Pathogenesis, Diagnosis, Treatment, and Preventive Strategies
Marburg virus disease (MVD) is a severe and often fatal hemorrhagic fever caused by the Marburg virus, a member of the Filoviridae family. First identified in 1967 during simultaneous outbreaks in Germany and Serbia, the virus is a zoonotic pathogen whose natural reservoir is the African fruit bat, Rousettus aegyptiacus. Human infection typically occurs through contact with bat excreta in mines or caves, or via secondary transmission from infected individuals through direct contact with bodily fluids. The clinical course of MVD is characterized by an abrupt onset of non-specific symptoms including high fever, severe headache, and myalgia after a 5-10 day incubation period. This progresses to gastrointestinal symptoms and, in severe cases, hemorrhagic manifestations, jaundice, and multi-organ failure, with a high case fatality rate ranging from 23% to 90%. Diagnosis is challenging due to symptom overlap with other tropical diseases but is confirmed through RT-PCR, antigen-capture ELISA, or virus isolation in high-containment (BSL-4) laboratories. There are currently no approved vaccines or specific antiviral treatments for MVD. Management is primarily supportive, focusing on fluid balance, electrolyte correction, and treating complications. Prevention relies on public health measures, including avoiding contact with bats, implementing strict barrier nursing techniques in healthcare settings, and safe burial practices during outbreaks. Ongoing research into post-exposure prophylactics, such as experimental vaccines and antisense therapies, shows promise for future outbreak control.
2025-07-03 | Marburg virus glycoprotein mRNA vaccine is more protective than a virus-like particle-forming mRNA vaccine.
Although virus-like particle (VLP) vaccines were shown to be effective against several viruses, their advantage over vaccines that include envelope protein only is not completely clear, particularly for mRNA-encoded VLPs. We conducted a side-by-side comparison of the immunogenicity and protective efficacy of mRNA vaccines encoding the Marburg virus (MARV) full-length glycoprotein (GP) delivered alone or as a VLP. Electron microscopy confirmed VLP formation when MARV GP and matrix protein VP40 were coexpressed. We vaccinated guinea pigs with a 2-component mRNA vaccine encoding GP and VP40 (VLP) or GP alone. At the highest dose, both vaccines protected fully, although the VLP vaccine elicited a slightly lower humoral response than did the GP-only mRNA vaccine. However, at low doses, GP-only mRNA conferred 100% protection, whereas the VLP vaccine conferred only partial protection. In mice, VLP mRNA induced a moderate preference for GP-specific CD8+ T cell responses, whereas the GP-only mRNA somewhat favored CD4+ T cell responses. Guinea pig whole-blood RNA-Seq revealed that the VLP vaccine downregulated genes associated with various biological and metabolic processes, including the NF-κB signaling pathway, whereas the GP-only vaccine upregulated IFN signaling. Overall, the VLP mRNA vaccine was less immunogenic and protective, whereas the GP-only mRNA vaccine conferred robust protection with a dose of as little as 1 μg in guinea pigs.
2025-03-03 | From protein to immunology: comprehensive insights into Marburg virus vaccines, mechanism, and application.
The Marburg virus (MARV), a member of the Filoviridae family, is a highly lethal pathogen that causes Marburg virus disease (MVD), a severe hemorrhagic fever with high fatality rates.Despite recurrent outbreaks, no licensed vaccine is currently available. This review explores MARV's genomic architecture, structural proteins, and recent advancements in vaccine development. It highlights the crucial role of MARV's seven monocistronic genes in viral replication and pathogenesis, with a focus on structural proteins such as nucleoprotein (NP), glycoprotein (GP), and viral proteins VP35, VP40, and VP24. These proteins are essential for viral entry, immune evasion, and replication. The review further examines various vaccine platforms, including multi-epitope vaccines, DNA-based vaccines, viral vector vaccines, virus-like particles (VLPs), and mRNA vaccines. Cutting-edge immunoinformatics approaches are discussed for identifying conserved epitopes critical for broad-spectrum protection. The immunological responses induced by these vaccine candidates, particularly their efficacy in preclinical trials, are analyzed, showcasing promising results in generating both humoral and cellular immunity. Moreover, the review addresses challenges and future directions in MARV vaccine development, emphasizing the need for enhanced immunogenicity, safety, and global accessibility. The integration of omics technologies (genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics) with immunoinformatics is presented as a transformative approach for next-generation vaccine design. Innovative platforms such as mRNA and VLP-based vaccines offer rapid and effective development opportunities. In this study, underscores the urgent need for a licensed MARV vaccine to prevent future outbreaks and strengthen global preparedness. By synthesizing the latest research and technological advancements, it provides a strategic roadmap for developing safe, effective, and broadly protective vaccines. The fight against MARV is a global priority, requiring coordinated efforts from researchers, policymakers, and public health organizations.
2024-04-08 | Divergent antibody recognition profiles are generated by protective mRNA vaccines against Marburg and Ravn viruses.
The first-ever recent Marburg virus (MARV) outbreak in Ghana, West Africa and Equatorial Guinea has refocused efforts towards the development of therapeutics since no vaccine or treatment has been approved. mRNA vaccines were proven successful in a pandemic-response to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2, making it an appealing vaccine platform to target highly pathogenic emerging viruses. Here, 1-methyl-pseudouridine-modified mRNA vaccines formulated in lipid nanoparticles (LNP) were developed against MARV and the closely-related Ravn virus (RAVV), which were based on sequences of the glycoproteins (GP) of the two viruses. Vaccination of guinea pigs with both vaccines elicited robust binding and neutralizing antibodies and conferred complete protection against virus replication, disease and death. The study characterized antibody responses to identify disparities in the binding and functional profiles between the two viruses and regions in GP that are broadly reactive. For the first time, the glycan cap is highlighted as an immunoreactive site for marburgviruses, inducing both binding and neutralizing antibody responses that are dependent on the virus. Profiling the antibody responses against the two viruses provided an insight into how antigenic differences may affect the response towards conserved GP regions which would otherwise be predicted to be cross-reactive and has implications for the future design of broadly protective vaccines. The results support the use of mRNA-LNPs against pathogens of high consequence.
2023-01-09 | Combination treatment of mannose and GalNAc conjugated small interfering RNA protects against lethal Marburg virus infection.
Marburg virus (MARV) infection results in severe viral hemorrhagic fever with mortalities up to 90%, and there is a pressing need for effective therapies. Here, we established a small interfering RNA (siRNA) conjugate platform that enabled successful subcutaneous delivery of siRNAs targeting the MARV nucleoprotein. We identified a hexavalent mannose ligand with high affinity to macrophages and dendritic cells, which are key cellular targets of MARV infection. This ligand enabled successful siRNA conjugate delivery to macrophages both in vitro and in vivo. The delivered hexa-mannose-siRNA conjugates rendered substantial target gene silencing in macrophages when supported by a mannose functionalized endosome release polymer. This hexa-mannose-siRNA conjugate was further evaluated alongside our hepatocyte-targeting GalNAc-siRNA conjugate, to expand targeting of infected liver cells. In MARV-Angola-infected guinea pigs, these platforms offered limited survival benefit when used as individual agents. However, in combination, they achieved up to 100% protection when dosed 24 h post infection. This novel approach, using two different ligands to simultaneously deliver siRNA to multiple cell types relevant to infection, provides a convenient subcutaneous route of administration for treating infection by these dangerous pathogens. The mannose conjugate platform has potential application to other diseases involving macrophages and dendritic cells.
antibodies
2026-08-24 | Advances in therapeutics and vaccines for Marburg virus disease: challenges and future directions.
Marburg virus disease (MVD) is a highly lethal filovirus infection with case fatality rates of up to 88%. Although no virus-specific interventions have yet been approved, recent laboratory breakthroughs have markedly accelerated translational progress in vaccine and therapeutic development. A hybrid methodological design was employed, combining macro-level bibliometric analysis with a targeted qualitative narrative review. As per the findings, the human monoclonal antibody MR191N provides complete post-exposure protection in non-human primates. Advanced RNA-targeted siRNAs, antisense oligonucleotides, and small-molecule nucleoside analogues (e.g. galidesivir) demonstrate robust preclinical efficacy in suppressing viral replication. Prophylactic platforms - including adenovirus-vectored (ChAd3-MARV), rVSV-MARV, and mRNA-based vaccines - are progressing through early-phase clinical and preclinical evaluation. Bibliometric analysis, however, reveals pronounced geographic disparities: high-income nations dominate scientific output (United States: 31.7%), while endemic African countries remain severely underrepresented in global collaboration networks. Addressing MVD requires a coordinated transition from experimental research to licensed, field-ready interventions. This necessitates adaptive trial designs, expanded diagnostic models, and synergistic combination therapies. Ultimately, correcting global research inequities and embedding robust, cross-border One Health surveillance infrastructure are essential to transforming scientific advances into equitable, rapid-response solutions for endemic regions.
2026-06-15 | Marburg virus disease: a comprehensive review.
SUMMARYMarburg virus disease (MVD) is a highly fatal illness closely resembling Ebola disease, caused by either Marburg virus (MARV) or Ravn virus (RAVV). It typically begins with a sudden onset of high fever, headache, and malaise, followed by severe gastrointestinal symptoms, bleeding disorders, and, in the most severe cases, multi-organ failure. Case fatality rates vary widely, from 24% up to 90%. MARV and RAVV are zoonotic pathogens, with fruit bats recognized as the main reservoir. Human-to-human transmission generally occurs through direct exposure to infected bodily fluids. Historically, MVD outbreaks were primarily restricted to Central and Eastern Africa. In recent years, however, the disease has appeared in new regions: Ghana recorded its first cases in 2022, followed by concurrent outbreaks in Equatorial Guinea and Tanzania in 2023. Rwanda and Ethiopia experienced their debut outbreaks in 2024 and 2025, respectively, and another outbreak occurred in early 2025 in Tanzania. These incidents point to a troubling rise in annual MVD outbreaks and emphasize the ongoing risk of spillover from wildlife reservoirs and continued human-to-human transmission. Currently, there are no approved vaccines or antiviral treatments for MVD. Patient care focuses on supportive therapies, including aggressive fluid resuscitation, management of blood pressure and circulation, and intensive critical care. Nonetheless, promising countermeasures, such as monoclonal antibodies and antiviral drugs, are advancing through research and clinical trials. Experimental vaccines, particularly those based on viral-vector technologies, have demonstrated robust immune responses and are undergoing human testing. This review provides clinicians with the most recent knowledge of MVD, with a focus on epidemiological patterns, diagnostic procedures, clinical management, and the latest progress in developing medical countermeasures.
2026-06-12 | Structural and genetic basis for broad antibody recognition of a protective epitope on orthomarburgvirus GP2.
Orthomarburgviruses are the etiological agents of human Marburg virus disease, with case fatality rates reaching up to 90%. Of the limited known targets for protective antibodies on the orthomarburgvirus surface glycoprotein (GP), the GP2 wing region is undefined structurally, and its recognition by antibodies is poorly understood. We report a comprehensive genetic and structural analysis of four independent broadly reactive antibody lineages that target a common epitope within the GP2 wing, including macaque antibodies CM10, CM11.1, and CM12.1 and murine antibody 30G4. Co-crystal structures reveal the recognition of conserved structural determinants within the wing by all four antibodies. Immunogenetic analyses uncover common antibody sequence signatures that underlie interactions with the wing, leading in some cases to nearly identical modes of antibody binding. Our study advances the structural understanding of the GP2 wing protective region and defines conserved immunogenetic and structural features for broad antibody recognition, informing the development of vaccines and antibody countermeasures.
2026-03-25 | Lessons from Marburg virus disease outbreaks: epidemiology, pathogenesis and emerging countermeasures
Amit Bansal1,*, Camilla Tvedt Ekanger1, Elin Hoffmann Dahl1, Bjørn Blomberg1,2,*,1Department of Clinical Science, Faculty of Medicine, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway;2National Centre for Tropical Infectious Diseases, Haukeland University Hospital, Bergen, Norway;*Corresponding authors:Dr. Amit Bansal (e-mail: amit.bansal@uib.no, ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0681-932X),Prof. Bjørn Blomberg (e-mail: Bjorn.Blomberg@uib.no, ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5647-4297 ),Department of Clinical Science,Faculty of Medicine,University of Bergen,Bergen, Norway
2026-03-01 | Mpox and Marburg outbreaks contained, but risks remain
Ethiopia’s first confirmed Marburg virus disease (MVD) outbreak, which began on Nov 14, 2025, was declared by WHO to be over on Jan 26, 2026. The outbreak saw 14 confirmed cases, nine deaths, and five recoveries, with 857 contacts traced. In addition to MDV declines, mpox cases have declined sharply across Africa, with weekly cases down about 90%, causing the Africa Centres for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) to announce that mpox was no longer a public health emergency of continental concern on Jan 22, 2026.
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2026-07-11 | Coagulopathy in viral haemorrhagic fevers and beyond: molecular mechanisms and targeted interventions.
Coagulopathy refers to any medical condition which affects the ability of the blood to clot. It can be caused due to genetic conditions like haemophilia, von Willebrand disease, or it can be caused through liver disease or deficiency of Vitamin K. It also involves a broad range of diseases affecting hemostasis as an unbalanced and even bidirectional relationship between thrombosis and bleeding. Coagulopathy can also be caused by thromboinflammation, as seen in VHFs like Ebola, Dengue, Marburg, Crimean-Congo Hemorrhagic Fever, Yellow Fever, and Hantavirus infection. The immune response and coagulation system are intricately linked in such cases. Infections from VHFs cause endothelial cell dysfunction through the immune response, monocytes/macrophages activation, and increased expression of tissue factor (TF), which in turn causes excessive thrombin production and fibrin formation. These conditions result in microvascular thrombosis, organ dysfunction, consumption of platelets and coagulation factors, causing a balanced but fragile state of hemostasis that could tip over towards either thrombosis or bleeding. New therapies have been developed that interfere with these processes, such as interference with the TF pathway (for instance, rNAPc2) and regulation of fibrinolysis (tranexamic acid). The recognition of the double-edged sword of coagulopathy is critical for the development of treatment strategies targeting coagulation disorders. This literature review discusses the molecular basis of immunothrombosis and endothelial dysfunction in VHFs.
2025-12-17 | The role of Marburg virus glycoprotein diversity on epitopes conservation and its impact on effectiveness of vaccines and therapeutic antibodies: A call for one health strategy in vaccines research, development, and coordinated implementation
The Marburg virus (MARV) is a highly lethal zoonotic filovirus that is responsible for sporadic outbreaks of severe viral hemorrhagic fever with high case mortality rate. Despite global investment in the development of vaccine and antibody-based countermeasures targeting the viral glycoprotein (GP), limited data is available on how such immune pressures shape GP genetic diversity and how this diversity is affecting the effectiveness of on-progress vaccines. In this study, we performed an Insilco-analysis of MARV-GP published sequences to investigate patterns of genetic variation under antibody selection and potentially vaccination pressure. Utilizing publicly available full-length GP sequences, we assessed domain-specific diversity, focusing on the mucin-like domain (MLD), receptor-binding region (RBR), and fusion peptide region (FPR). The immunological impacts of amino acid polymorphisms, including potential escape from neutralizing antibodies including MR78 and MR191 were investigated. Results showed that the MLD had disproportionately high diversity, likely due to relaxed structural constraints, potentially reducing GP-based vaccine efficacy. The RBR and FPR were more conserved, but several non-conservative mutations affected antibody binding affinity. Notably, mutations clustered near known epitopes, suggesting antibody-driven selection. This study underscores the importance of continued molecular and immunogenic surveillance that account for MARV-GP diversity, especially in regions prone to immunologic targeting. These results improve current understanding of viral adaptation under immune pressure and inform MARV vaccines and therapeutic antibodies design strategies. Stakeholders of zoonotic diseases, should invest on integrating One Health strategy in the research and development of safe effective vaccines across all hosts of the pathogens to accelerate diseases elimination.
2025-05-22 | Bat organoids reveal antiviral responses at epithelial surfaces.
Bats can host viruses of pandemic concern without developing disease. The mechanisms underlying their exceptional resilience to viral infections are largely unresolved, necessitating the development of physiologically relevant and genetically tractable research models. Here, we developed respiratory and intestinal organoids that recapitulated the cellular diversity of the in vivo epithelium present in Rousettus aegyptiacus, the natural reservoir for the highly pathogenic Marburg virus (MARV). In contrast to human counterparts, bat organoids and mucosal tissue exhibited elevated constitutive expression of innate immune effectors, including type I interferon-ε (IFNε) and IFN-stimulated genes (ISGs). Upon infection with diverse zoonotic viruses, including MARV, bat organoids strongly induced type I and III IFN responses, which conferred robust antiviral protection. Type III IFNλ3 additionally displayed virus-independent self-amplification, acting as an ISG to enhance antiviral immunity. Our organoid platform reveals key features of bat epithelial antiviral immunity that may inform therapeutic strategies for viral disease resilience.
2024-01-12 | Mathematical modelling of transmission dynamics of Marburg virus with effective quarantine approach
Marburg virus disease (MVD) is a severe infection with an extremely high fatality rate, spread through direct and indirect contact. Recently, there was an outbreak of the deadly MVD disease. We studied the transmission dynamics of MVD through the SEQIR model and determined the basic reproduction number, the local stability, and the global stability of the disease-free equilibrium. This study aims to mathematically model the transmission dynamics of MVD using an effective Quarantine Approach. Building upon existing research, the model introduces a quarantine compartment and analyses the disease-free equilibrium.The results indicate that quarantining exposed individuals effectively curb the transmission of MVD and prevents secondary infections. Additionally, the introduction of treatment in the model ensures the survival of patients. However, it is emphasized that further research is essential to develop specific treatments for MVD, as preventive measures alone may not be sufficient to control the disease's spread.
2023-08-28 | AAV-Vectored Expression of Marburg Virus–Neutralizing Antibody MR191 Provides Complete Protection From Challenge in a Guinea Pig Model
Abstract Although there are no approved countermeasures available to prevent or treat disease caused by Marburg virus (MARV), potently neutralizing monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) derived from B cells of human survivors have been identified. One such mAb, MR191, has been shown to provide complete protection against MARV in nonhuman primates. We previously demonstrated that prophylactic administration of an adeno-associated virus (AAV) expressing MR191 protected mice from MARV. Here, we modified the AAV-MR191 coding sequence to enhance efficacy and reevaluated protection in a guinea pig model. Remarkably, 4 different variants of AAV-MR191 provided complete protection against MARV, despite administration 90 days prior to challenge. Based on superior expression kinetics, AAV-MR191-io2, was selected for evaluation in a dose-reduction experiment. The highest dose provided 100% protection, while a lower dose provided ∼88% protection. These data confirm the efficacy of AAV-mediated expression of MR191 and support the further development of this promising MARV countermeasure.
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Drug Discovery Landscape
4 orphan drug designations for Marburg hemorrhagic fever.
4 orphan drug designations for Marburg hemorrhagic fever.
Drug | Therapy type | Orphan designation | Clinical trial status | Sponsor |
|---|---|---|---|---|
galidesivir | small molecules | FDA | Island Pharmaceuticals | |
Subunit protein vaccine of recombinantly expressed Marburg Marburgvirus glycoprotein (MARV GP, MarVax) | proteins | FDA | — | Soligenix, Inc. |
An immunoglobulin subclass 1 (IgG1) human monoclonal antibody that targets the Marburg virus (MARV) glycoprotein | antibodies | FDA | — | Mapp Biopharmaceutical, Inc. |
5ÿ¿ÿÿÿ¢ÿ¿ÿÿ¬"-GAATATTAACAIACTGACAAGTC-3ÿ¿ÿÿÿ¢ÿ¿ÿÿ¬" | small molecules | FDA | Sarepta Therapeutics, Inc. |
“Terminated” – programs with discontinued clinical trials, or with no updates reported for 5 years after completion or 12 years after the last trial started.
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